Vulgar Latin, as seen in this engraving political Pompeii , spoken by the people of the Roman Empire , was different from classical Latin literature.

Vulgar Latin or Vulgar Latin (in Latin, "the vernacular") is a term that encompasses the dialects vernacular of Latin that existed mostly in the provinces west of the Roman Empire , until these dialects, diverging more and more from each other, were processed as and when measured in Romance languages primitives. It is considered that the mutation, which began towards the ^second century with traces of past changes, ended around the ^ninth century.

This spoken Latin differed from the literary language that was the classical Latin , both in its pronunciation and vocabulary in his grammar. Do not confuse either with the "living Latin", that is to say, the Latin spoken and written by a now more and more people who claim it as an international language, which is in Indeed, the classical Latin increased by all the terms necessary for modern communication (eg reticulum interrete: internet).

Some aspects of Vulgar Latin did not appear at the end of the Empire, while it is likely that others existed in spoken Latin, at least in the forms basilect Latin, much earlier.

In most definitions, the "vulgar Latin" or "vulgar Latin" sounds like a language primarily spoken and rarely written, because the Latin writing remained closest to the classical Latin. There are good reasons to think that spoken Latin broke into dialects differing from the substrate of the Italic languages (Osco-Umbrian mainly) during this period. Because no one has transcribed the idioms of everyday Latinos during the period in question, those who study the Vulgar Latin must do so by using indirect methods.

Our knowledge of Vulgar Latin comes from three main sources. First, the contrastive linguistics can be used to rebuild its underlying forms from the attested Romance languages, and then note how they differ from classical Latin.

Then, several pieces of normative grammar from the period of the late Latin condemn linguistic errors that Latinos tended to commit. These texts are rich sources on how Latinos really speak their language.

Finally, solecisms and non-traditional uses that are occasionally detected in some Late Latin texts illuminate how the authors speak.

The Cantar de Mio Cid is the earliest text of considerable length that we have in Castilian medieval and marks the beginning of this language, separate from the Vulgar Latin.

The name "vulgar" simply means "common": it comes from the Latin word uulgaris, meaning "common" or "what is the people." The term "Vulgar Latin" inspired the term sermo uulgaris used by Cicero , and incorporating the meaning of vulgar in modern languages, has emerged in the 1870s. For Latin scholars, "Vulgar Latin" has several meanings.

1. It means the spoken Latin of the Roman Empire. Classical Latin was still a rather artificial literary language, the Latin qu'apportrent soldiers, traders and craftsmen in Roman Gaul , at the Iberia or Dacia was not necessarily that of Cicero. According to this definition, Vulgar Latin was a spoken language, while they wrote in Latin "late" (whose style was a little different standards "classic", that is to say the Latin texts of the ^first century ).
2. It refers to the hypothetical ancestor of the Romance languages. It is a language that we can not know directly, apart from some inscriptions ( graffiti ) is Latin, which has undergone many significant changes, including sound, we can reconstruct the comparative linguistics , looking at the changes that are evident in its descendants, the Romance vernacular languages.
3. In one sense even more circumscribed, sometimes called "Vulgar Latin" language hypothetical Proto-Romance Western Romance languages: the vernaculars found north and west of a line in La Spezia - Rimini , in France and in the Iberian peninsula, and the Romance languages of North Africa East which there are only few traces. According to this view, the Italian south-east of Italy , the Romanian , and Dalmatian would have developed separately.
4. Sometimes used "vulgar Latin" to describe the grammatical innovations found in some texts written in late Latin, such as Peregrinatio Aetheriae the ^fourth century , a story was written a nun during a stay in Palestine and Mount Sinai , or the works of Gregory of Tours. Since written documentation of Vulgar Latin forms is scarce, these works are very useful to philologists , mainly because they may contain "mistakes" that give us an overview of the dialects in effect during the period they were written.

Some literary works written in the registers and familiar era of classical Latin also allow us to glimpse the world of Vulgar Latin. The works of Plautus , as well as those of Terence , comedies filled with characters who are slaves retain some primitive forms basilect Latin, as the dialogue of freedmen in the Cena Trimalchio in Petronius.

Vulgar Latin developed differently in the various provinces of the Roman Empire, and these processes had resulted in the gradual formation of the various Romance languages . To emphasize the oral nature of these forms of Latin, others use the term "Latin spoken" sometimes adding the qualification "late" where LPT (Latin spoken late ") . The term "Late Latin" is sometimes presented as a synonym for "Vulgar Latin".

Phonology

Vowels

Among the changes undergone by the Latin classic that turns into Vulgar Latin and Proto-Romance language, the deeper were the reorganization of its system vowel. Latin had originally separate ten vowels: long and short versions of 'a', 'e', 'i', 'o', and 'u', and three diphthongs : "ae" "oe" and " at. " (According to some, it was listed as "ho").

There were also long and short versions of "y", borrowed from ancient Greek. Apart from Sardinian , one can summarize the transformations suffered by the vowel in classical Latin chart at right.

Diphthongs 'ae' and 'ow' have changed significantly. The alteration of "au" in / o / is attested from the ^first century BC. BC, by the example of Claudius Pulcher , who adopted the name of Clodius, to follow the popular pronunciation. The "au" is reduced to / o / in many languages after / o / and / o / original had undergone other changes. (Portuguese only transformed into / or / before these changes become quite recently, deeper. Occitan and Romanian retain / to / classic.)

So the system of ten vowels What would classical Latin (not counting diphthongs and "y" of Greek origin), who had also used a system of vowels phonemic , was transformed into a system where lengths of the vowels had no phonemic value, but where the alterations of voice quality have acquired phonemic. Because we no longer have to focus on certain vowels, making them longer than others, we could focus on syllables, stressing some of them, what was much least in classical Latin. Now focus on the stressed syllables were also the result that the unstressed syllables tended to become less distinct. As well as some changes were made to the sounds of accented syllables. All these changes led to a new system of vowels: there were seven who were accentuated (six novels, five in Sardinian) and five non-accented vowel phonemes.

Vowels which gave birth to the collapse of the 'o' and 'e' short proved unstable in languages and girls tended to become diphthongs. Focus (which is the accusative focums) (home) became General protoroman word for "fire" and replacing ignis, but his "o" short turned into a diphthong, diphthongs appeared in several different languages from the protoroman (reconstructed language):

• Spanish : fuego
• French : fire (which is no longer a diphthong, but as / for /)
• Italian : fuoco

French and Italian, these changes do s'effecturent in the syllables "open". The Spanish, however, is diphthong in all circumstances, creating a simple vowel system, consisting of five vowels in stressed syllables and non-accented. In Portuguese, this process did not occur diphthongization (fogo / Fogu /).

In Romania , the "e" writ of Vulgar Latin evolved into a diphthong, but the "o" in short, has not suffered the same fate (foc). The Catalan , for its part, saw little diphthongization (foc). The Portuguese avoided some vocalic instability retaining the Latin distinction between long and short vowels to a certain point in its system of closed and open vowels. The "e" and "o" feature of Latin became generally closed vowels in Portuguese (written e and o when the highlights). The pronunciation of vowels is the same as that found in the table of vowels of Vulgar Latin right.

Vocalic instability could however be observed, especially in the case of the "o" low, which turns into / u / as well as in the case of the "e" low, which turns into / i / or / /.

Consonants

The palatalization of Latin / k /, / t /, and often / g / was almost universal in Vulgar Latin, the only Romance dialects that do not know the effects were some varieties of Sardinian. So, Latin caelum, pronounced / kaelu (m) / / k /) became sky / sjl / while he became cu / 'su / Portuguese: both begin with / s /. The old half vowels Latin: V, pronounced / w /, vinum ex) and I (pronounced / d /, as in iocunda, ended up turning into / v / and / d /, respectively. Similarly, when sounds / b /, / w / and / v / were between vowels, they often merged into its intermediate / /.

In the Latin alphabet , the letters U and V, on the one hand, and the letters I and J on the other hand, did not represent different sounds.

In the western regions of the Romance languages, a vowel, epenthetic was inserted at the beginning of words beginning with s and another consonant: Latin spatha (sword) became so espada Spanish and Portuguese. In contrast, the Eastern Romance languages kept the rules of euphony adding the epenthesis in the preceding article when necessary. The Italian thus keeps the article before spada, but it transforms the article before spaghetto lo.

The genre was revived in the Latin languages daughters when they lost the final consonants. In classical Latin, the endings-us and-um were used to distinguish between the masculine and neuter nouns in the second declension , once-s and-m apart, merged with the neutral male, a process which ended completely in Romance languages. By cons, some plurals such as neutral gaudia (joys) were reanalysed as feminine singulars. The loss of final-m was a process that seems to have started very early. Thus, in the epitaph of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus , who died around 150 BC. AD , reads TAVRASIA CISAVNA SAMNIO CEPIT, what we had written as follows in classical Latin: Taursiam, Cisaunam, Samnium cpit. However, the final-m always spelled in the literary language, though often treated as silent for scansion in poetry.

Statement of changes

Wikisource has the original document related to this article:

Appendix Probi

One can find evidence for these changes in the Appendix Probi , a collection of commentaries dating from the ^third century who prescribe the correct forms of classical Latin for certain vulgar forms. These commentaries describe:

• a process of syncope , loss of unstressed vowels (MASCVLVS MASCLVS NO);
• reduction of / e / and / i /, formerly syllabic / d / (NO VINEA VINI);
• a leveling of the distinction between / o / and / u / (NO COLVBER Colobus) and / e / and / i / (NO DIMIDIVS DEMEDIVS);
• regularization of irregular forms (GLIS glir NO);
• regularization and emphasis of sexual forms PAVPER MVLIER PAVPERA MVLIER NO);
• leveling of the distinction between / b / and / v / between vowels (BRAVIVM BRABIVM NO);
• the substitution of diminutives for unmarked words (AVRIS ORICLA NO, NO NEPTICLA NEPT);
• The loss of nasals that are in the final syllable (MENSA NO MESA) or the insertion of inappropriate nasal form of overcorrection (NO FORMOSVS FORMVNSVS).

Many forms that the authors of the Appendix Probi criticized proved prolific in Romance languages; oricla not auris, the classic form, is the source of "ear" in French, of Orel in Catalan, from oreja in Spanish to Italian orecchio, of Ureche in novel and orelha Portuguese.

Vocabulary

Some words from Classical Latin were removed from the lexicon of Vulgar Latin. Equus, classic, found himself constantly replaced by caballus (slacker) (but note Romanian IAPA, EBBA in Sardinia yegua Spanish, Catalan and egua gua in Portuguese mean any mare, and which derives from the Latin classical equa). Similarly, aequor (Wed) yielded everywhere pond. Can be found on the right is a list of words that were exclusive to the lexicon standard, compared with those who were productive in Romance languages.

Some of these words, which were in the Romance languages, were re-borrow the classical Latin as a learned words. Lexical changes affect even the basic grammatical particles from Latin, many have disappeared without trace in the Romance languages, such as year, at, autem, donec, enim, ergo, etiam, haud, igitur, ita, nam, Postquam , quidem, quin, quod, quoque, sed, utrum and vel.

However, since Vulgar Latin and Latin proper were for years, different registers of the same language rather than different languages, some Romance languages preserve Latin words that most of them have lost. For example, Italian ogni (each) canned omnes. Other languages are using cognates of totus (totum in the accusative) to express the same meaning, so we see tutto in Italian, tudo Portuguese, Spanish todo, tot in Catalan, Occitan and Romanian, and of course , all in French.

Often Latin words again borrowed from a higher register of language alongside more advanced forms. Expected phonetic developments (or lack thereof) are an indication that one form has been borrowed. In Spanish, for example, fungi, accusative fungum in Vulgar Latin (mushroom, fungi) became Italian fungo, Catalan fong in, fongo Portuguese and Spanish hongo, F> H is normal in Spanish (cf. filius> hijo ( son) or facere> hacer (to do). hongo But sharing space with semantic fungo, which shows its lack of vowel change that was again taken to register the highest in Latin.

Sometimes, a classical Latin word is retained as the equivalent of vulgar Latin. In Vulgar Latin, caput gave way to testa (head) (which meant the original pot, a common metaphor throughout the Western Europe - cf. Kopf cup in English in German ) in some western Romance languages, including French and Italian. But the Italian, French, Occitan, Catalan caput kept in the forms of capo, head and cap, respectively, and those words hold many metaphorical meanings of the head, including boss. The Latin word is preserved with its original meaning in a novel direction, which, like Teaster, meaning head in an anatomical sense. Similarly, southern Italian dialects preserve capo as the usual word for head. The Spanish and Portuguese have cabeza / cabea, derived from * capetia, a modified form of caput, while the test was kept in the front to speak Portuguese.

Overall, this shows a common pattern, observed in many circumstances - the peripheral dialects tend to be more conservative than the central dialects.

Verbs that were prefixed prepositions frequently supplanted simple shapes. The number of words formed with suffixes such as-bilis,-arius, ITAR-Icarus-greatly increased. These changes took place frequently to avoid irregular forms or to regularize the genre.

To understand the change of lexical late Vulgar Latin in France, he should look at the glosses of Reichenau Grammar

The disappearance of the casual system

The sound changes taking place in Vulgar Latin weakened the casual system of classical Latin and eventually get rid completely of the system a href = "% C3% D A9clinaison_ (grammar)" title = "Variation (grammar)"> unique to Latin declensions. Following the casual intenabilit system after these phonetic changes, Vulgar Latin was transformed from a synthetic language into an analytical language. In the latter, the word order is a necessary element of syntax. Consider this qu'entranrent loss of phonemic vowel length and change sound of AE / ae / I / / in respect of a noun typical of the first group (see table). We go from 4 shapes (rosa / rosam / Rosa / Rosa) 2 only (rosa / pink).

Complete removal of the case was done gradually. The Old French still maintained a distinction between nominative and oblique (called "cas-sujet/cas-rgime"); she disappeared during the ^twelfth and ^thirteenth centuries , as the dialect in question. The old Occitan maintained a similar distinction, as many languages Rhaeto-Romance until a few centuries. The Romanian case always keeps a genitive / dative , as well as vestiges of a vocative.

The distinction between singular and plural was marked in two different ways in the Romance languages. North and west of La Spezia-Rimini line , which divides Italy and horizontally found in the north of the country, singular plural differentiated by using a final-s was present in the old plural accusative of masculine and feminine nouns of all declensions. South and east of La Spezia-Rimini line, the distinction between singular and plural is marked by changes in final vowels, as in standard Italian and Romanian. This preserves and generalizes distinctions that are marked on the nominative plural of the first and second groups.

The definite article in Romance languages

It is difficult to establish how the definite article , which is absent in Latin but present in ancient Greek and in one form or another in the Romance languages , was formed. Especially because the very familiar talk which was written shortly before he emerged as the languages were identified girls do to each other, and most texts written in the early Romance languages available to us show the articles fully developed.

The articles were previously defined pronouns or demonstrative adjectives , you can compare the fate of the demonstrative adjective Latin "ille, illa, (illud)" in Romance languages : they became "the" and "the" in French, " el "and" the "in Catalan and Spanish, and" he "and" the "in Italian. Sections Portuguese 'o' and 'a' comes ultimately from the same source. On this point, Sardinian still followed a different path, forming the basis of his article to "IPSU (m)," ipsa (su, sa), and some dialects of Catalan and Occitan have items from the same source. While most of the Romance languages put the article before the noun, Romanian, it differs from them insofar as he is after, then we say "Lupul (wolf) and" omul "(the man) - (from "lupum illum" and "homo illum.

This pronoun is used in many contexts in some early texts in a way that tends to suggest that the Latin demonstrative lost its strength. The Bible said Vetus latina contains a passage "Is tamen ille sodalis peccati daemon" (The devil is a companion of sin) in a context that suggests that "ille" had only the sense of a single article. The fact that it was necessary to translate sacred texts that were originally written in ancient Greek who himself had a definite article may encourage the Christian to choose a latin word to replace it. Egeria uses "ipse" similarly "Mediama vallem per ipsam (" through the middle of the valley), which suggests that "ipse" also weakened during this period.

We can find another testimony of this weakness when one considers that at the time, legal texts and some others began to contain a large number of words like "praedictus", "supradictus", etc.. (All of which can be translated as "aforesaid") and seem to mean that "it" or "that one." Gregory of Tours writes: "Erat autem ... beatissimus Anianus in supradicta ciuitate episcopus" (Blessed Aniane was bishop in that city). Latin demonstrative adjectives were seen as no longer accurate enough. In language less sustained, reconstituted forms tend to suggest that the inherited Latin demonstratives were strengthened by combining with "ecce" (based on an interjection ("Here!") or "* ECCU," Classical Latin " eccum "look again"). This is the origin of "eyelash" (* "ecce ille)," cist "(*" ecce iste) and "here" (* "ecce hic) in Old French, to" aqueste "and" Aquel "in Occitan, from" Aquel "and Spanish" Aquele "in Portuguese (*" ECCU ille ")," questo "(*" istum ECCU ")," quello "(*" ECCU illum ") and" codesto - - unusual now - (* "ECCU istum tibi" in Italian; "ac / ca" (* "hac ECCU"), "acoli" (* "illac ECCU), and" acqum (ECCU * india ") in Portuguese , and many other forms.

By cons, in the Oaths of Strasbourg , no demonstrative appears, not even where the Romance languages that will develop the employees have. ("Pro Deo amur -" for the love of God. "Use demonstratives as articles may have been able to seem too slangy for a royal oath in the ^ninth century. As noted above, there is a relatively large amount of variation in all the vernacular novels about the way they are actually uses: in Romanian, the articles suffixent the noun, as is the case for other members of the Balkan linguistic union and Scandinavian languages.

"Unus, una" (one, one) supplies the indefinite article everywhere. We see the beginnings in classical Latin, Cicero wrote cum uno gladiatore nequissimo "(with a gladiator rather immoral). This suggests that "unus" began to displace "Quidam" to mean "some" or "some" from the first century BC.

Gender: disappearance of the neutral

Three grammatical genders of Classical Latin were replaced by a system of two genders in the Romance languages (in general, see below). In Latin, the genre is partly a matter of agreement , that is to say that some nouns take certain forms of adjectives and first names, and partly a matter of inflection , that is to say there are different paradigms associated with the masculine / feminine one hand and with the other neutral.

The neutral of classical Latin was usually so absorbed by the syntactic and morphological male. Syntactic confusion began even in the graffiti at Pompeii , so we see "cadaver mortuus" instead of "mortuum cadaver (dead body) and" locum hoc "instead of" hunc locum "(this place). The morphological confusion is seen primarily in the adoption of the termination "-us" ("-o" after "-r") in the variation known as "o" in Petronius found "balneus" for "balneum ( bath), "Fatus" for "Fate" (fate), "Caelus" for "caelum (heaven)," amphiteater "for" Amphitheatrum (amphitheater), and vice versa, "thesaurum" for "thesaurus" (treasure).

In the modern Romance languages, the nominative ending "-s" was dropped, and all nouns in the declension "-o" ending in-UM> "-u" / "-o" / "-o": Murum > "muro" in Italian and Spanish, "wall" in Catalan and French "Caelum>" cielo "in Italian and Spanish," sky "in French," cel "in Catalan and" cel "in Occitan. The former French kept the "-s" in the nominative and "-o" in the accusative in both original types (that is to say, "walls" skies ").

As for some nouns neutral group ^3, the radical slant was the productive form in Romance languages, while in other cases it was registered form / accusative, identical in classical Latin, who survived. There are good reasons to say that gender neutral suffered pressure from the Roman Empire. Take the example of "milk." "(The) milk (French)," (la) n July "(Catalan)," (lo) milk / lach "in Occitan," (la) leche (Spanish), "(o) leite (Portuguese) "(He) latte (Italian) and" lapte (on) (novel) are all derived from the Latin nom. / acc. neutral "lacteous" or acc. masc. "LACTEM" non-standard forms but attested, the nominative and accusative form standard in classical Latin was "lake". The Spaniard gave him the feminine gender, while French, Occitan, Portuguese, Italian and Romanian made him male. However, other neutral forms were preserved in Romance languages, "name" in Catalan, Occitan and French, "nome" in Portuguese and Italian retain all "nomen" (Latin nominative / accusative), rather than the radical form oblique * "nominem" which is the source of "number" in Spanish.

Most were neutral nouns plural forms which ends in-A or-IA, some of them were reanalysed as feminine singulars, such as "Gaudium" plural "gaudia" (the joy (s)); form plural is the root of "joy" (singular!) in French - it's the same with regard to the "Joia" in Catalan and Occitan (the "gioia" in Italian is a borrowing from French) c ' is the same for "lignum" plural "line" (the wood (you pick)) which is the origin of "llenya" in Catalan, "the Lenha" in Occitan, or "Lena" by Spanish. Some Romance languages still have a special plural form of the old neutral they treat women as a syntactic level: for example, BRACCHIUM: BRACCHIA "(the / s) arm"> "(il) braccio": "(The) braccia 'in Italian, "Brats (ul)": "brat (on)" in Romanian. Compare also Latin Merovingian "ipsa animalia aliquis fuer bog-oak.

Forms such as "uovo fresco (fresh eggs) /" the uova fresche (fresh eggs) in Italian are often the subject of justification that they have an irregular plural in "-a" (heteroclisis ). Yet it is equally correct to say that "uovo" is simply a regular neuter noun (<ovum, plural ova) and that the endings for words granting characteristics with these nouns is "o" in the singular and "e" in plural. Thus one can argue that persist neutral nouns in Italian and Romanian. These courses were most common when it could be used to avoid irregular shapes. In Latin names of trees were often women, but many of them declined as the paradigm of group ^2, who himself was dominated by the masculine and neutral nouns. "Pirus" ( pear ), a feminine noun whose ending seems male became masculine in Italian ("(it) pero") and Romania (by (ul) ") in French and in Spanish it was replaced by the male lead "(the) pear" and "(el) peral" respectively, while Portuguese and Catalan them were women "(a) Pereria", "(the) perera). "Fagus ( beech ), another feminine noun coated in female clothes is preserved in some dialects as a male, as the Romanian "fag (ul)" Occitan "fau" or Catalan "(el) Faig; other dialects have replaced it with the adjectival forms "fageus" or "fagea" (made from beech wood), where the Italian "(he) faggio" Spanish "(el) haya "and Portuguese" (a) faia.

As usual, irregularities persisted longest in the terms most frequently used. Of ^the 4th declension "manus" (hand), here is another feminine noun with a masculine ending. "Manus" gave "(la) mano" in Italian, "(la) m" in Catalan, "(a) mo" in Portuguese, which it retains its feminine form although there is apparently male.

Aside from the substantive "heteroclitic" in Italian and Romanian, the other major Romance languages have no trace of neutral nouns, but all have neutral pronouns. French: "one, this, this, this, this" Spanish: "Este, esta, esto (all meaning" this "Italian" gli, the, this ("to him, her, this (or else, "he")); Catalan: 'ho', 'aco', 'aix "," hello "(" id "," this "," this / that "); Occitan" o " "ba", "aquo", "AICO" Portuguese: "todo, toda, tudo (" all "," any "," anything ").

Some varieties of the Asturian maintain endings for the three types as in "good" (bonu, bona, bono).

(Note: Spanish has a neutral a way to "lo", the article neutral, usually used with nouns denoting abstract categories: "lo bueno" (good), "lo important" (important). "Sabes que es SO LATE?", literally "Do you know the later it is?" In a more idiomatic translation, "Do you know how late it is?". As for pronouns The Spanish also has a neutral singular 'ello, "apart" l, ella "properly cited.)

The proliferation of pronouns

The loss of the productive system was significant perquisites. Indeed, this system was the basis of the syntax of classical Latin, and his disappearance required the establishment of a new base. It will be around prepositions and other paraphrases. These particles increased in number and many of them were formed by combining other existing particles. Romance languages have many grammatical particles such as "donde" in Spanish, (where), from the Latin "de" + "unde" or, "from" in French, from "from" + 'ex. "In", it comes out "intus" (inside), while the equivalent Spanish and Portuguese (desde) has "of" + ex + "from". "Despus", in Spanish, and "depois" in Portuguese (after) coming out "" + ex + "post." Some of these new combinations appear in literary texts from the late Empire; "Outside (French) as" fuera "(Spanish) and" fora "(Portuguese) represent all three" of "+" foris ( out) while the Romanian "Afara" ("ad" + "foris." Thus do we find in St. Jerome, "if quis FORIS veneris" (if someone comes out and if someone goes outside).

Samples:

Gradually, as the Latin lost its case system, prepositions beginning to fill this gap. Familiar in Latin, the preposition "ad" followed by the accusative is sometimes used as a substitution of dative.

• Classical Latin:
  • Iacobus heritage librum dat. - "Jacques gives a / the book to his father"

• Vulgar Latin:
  • 'Jacms' lvr a 'ppatre' Donate. - "Jacques gives a / the book to his father"

(Note that the assimilation of "D" to "ad" in "'ppatre" is hardly surprising, since "D" and "P" are both of occlusive .)

As was the case for the dative then disappearing, sometimes replacing the familiar Latin genitive with the preposition "de" followed by the ablative.

• Classical Latin:
  • Mihi librum patris Iacobus dat. - "Jacques gives me a / the book (his) father."

• Vulgar Latin:
  • 'Jacms me' lvr of 'homeland' donat. - "Jacques gives me a / lb (belonging to) (his) father."

or,

• Vulgar Latin:
  • 'Jacms' lvr of' homeland 'Mrs.' donat. - "Jacques gives the book of (belonging to) (his) father to me. "

Adverbs

Classical Latin has many different suffixes which serve to transform adjectives into adverbs : "Carus" (expensive), "care" (Cher), "acer" (live, hard, sharp, pungent), "acriter (hard ), "Creber (often, adj.)" Crebo "(often, adv.). All of these derivational suffixes were lost in Vulgar Latin, where adverbs are formed by suffixation of a systematic ablative feminine "-mente" - which was originally the ablative of "lying" - meaning "one mind". So the adverb formed from "velox" (quickly) became "veloce mente", not "velocity." (Veloce mente "did not want to start by saying that" a quick wit, "before being reinterpreted as" quickly "). This explains the fact that almost always, in the Romance languages, regular adverbs add the suffix "-ing (e)" at the end of the feminine form of the adjective. And "lied" it became a simple suffix ^Verb

The forms were taking verbs were much less affected by the loss erodes the phonetic systems of nominal case, in fact, an active verb in Spanish is very similar to its Latin ancestor: why? Among the reasons is the fact that the tonic accent of Vulgar Latin Box (that of classical Latin were low) was frequently so that different syllables were accentuated in the various conjugated forms of a verb. So, although the shapes of words continues to evolve phonetically, the distinctions among the conjugated forms of a single verb does not wear out too.

For example, to say in Latin "I" and "we love" they said Amo and ammus respectively. Since an A is pronounced in Latin diphthongs in some cases when the Vulgar Latin turned into Old French, it was (j ') I am the first and for the last Although several phonemes were lost in each case, different patterns of emphasis helped to preserve the distinctions between them, even if the verb thus became irregular. Influences which tended to stabilize the verbs were opposed to that effect in some cases (so we "love" now) but some modern verbs have preserved the irregularity, as I v I v e ns us NONS.

Another series of changes continued when the ^first century was the loss of final consonants. One can read in a graffiti at Pompeii "Valia Quisque ama" (in classical Latin we had written "Quisque valeat amat" - "that one who loves to go well"). In perfect , many Romance languages gnralisrent the ending-AUI, especially in the first group. Which led to an interesting development, a phonetic point of view, the ending was treated as the diphthong / au / rather than containing a half vowel / awi /, and the sound / w / was often removed, thus not participating just moving sound / w / to / v /. So, the Latin words and Amau Amau became in many emerging Romance languages * amai and * amaut. Thus, we improve, amo (Spanish) and amei, amou (Portuguese). Which suggests that in the spoken language, these changes in conjugation preceded the loss of / w /.

Contrary to the continuity of more than a thousand years knew the verbal system active, the passive voice was completely lost in the romance languages, and it was therefore it was replaced by auxiliary verbs - ways of "being" more a passive participle, or by reflexive verbs impersonal.

Another major systemic change was the development of a new future time , based on auxiliary verbs. It is possible that the replacement of future time Latin was caused by the fusion of phonetic / b / and / v / intervocalic. Indeed, such a merger would have resulted in forms such as the future AmAbs became identical to some forms of perfect , such as Amau. What would have been too ambiguous. Initially, a new future was formed at the base of the auxiliary verb habere, * amare habeo, literally "I have to love." This construction was contracted into a new future suffix in Romance languages:

• Catalan / Spanish : amar + +
• French : I'd like + +
• Italian : amero + +
• Portuguese : amarei + +

We can see that the future of the Romance languages suffix was originally an independent word, especially when considering the Portuguese in fact, it sometimes adds direct and indirect pronouns as the infix in the future tense : I'd (had) amarei, but I love you, amarteei, amar + te Notes

Bibliography

See also the bibliography on the Romance languages.

• Michel Banniard, Latin to Romance languages, Nathan, Paris, 1997, 127 p. ( ISBN 2-09-190478-3 );
• (In) KP Harrington, J. Pucci, and AG Elliott, Medieval ^Latin, 2nd ed., Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, 1997. ( ISBN 0-226-31712-9 );
• Jozef Herman
  • The Latin vulgar, PUF, coll. " What do I know? ", ^No. 1247, Paris, 1967;
  • From Latin to Romance languages: studies of historical linguistics, Tbingen, 1990;
    Collection of articles.
• Herman Jozef (ed.), Latin vulgar, Late Latin: Proceedings of the First International Congress on Vulgar Latin and Late (Pcs, 2 to 5 September 1985), Niemeyer, Tbingen, 1987, 262 p. ;
• (De) Gerhard Rohlfs, Vom Vulgrlatein zum Altfranzsich: Einfhrung in das Studium der altfranzsischen Sprache, Tbingen, 1963;
  Contains much of the Vulgar Latin texts cited in this article, along with detailed comments in German.
• (In) N Vincent, "Latin", in M. Harris and N. Vincent (ed.), The Romance Languages, Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, 1990 ( ISBN 0-19-520829-3 );
• Veikko Vnnen, Introduction to Vulgar ^Latin, 3rd ed. rev. and corr., References

Sources

• (In) This article is partially or entirely from the article in English entitled " Vulgar Latin "(see the list of authors )

See also

Related articles

• The Latin Jordanes ^(sixth century)
• Poem of the Cid
• Demonstrative pronoun

External Links

• An Introduction to Vulgar Latin by CH Grandgent
• Latin at the End of the Imperial Age of Dag Norberg

• Language portal

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